The Chinese Peony (Paeonia lactiflora), also known as common garden peony, is one of the most revered and cultivated ornamental plants in the world. Its presence in gardens and floral arrangements is marked by huge, exuberant flowers, delicate fragrance, and a rich history that spans centuries of cultivation and appreciation. This perennial herbaceous species from the Paeoniaceae family is native to temperate regions of Asia, including Siberia, Mongolia, Tibet, and northern China, where it grows in distinct habitats such as steppes, riverbanks, and forest clearings.
The Chinese Peony is widely recognized for its ornamental and medicinal importance. In traditional Chinese medicine, it is known as 芍药 (sháoyào) and its roots have been used for over a thousand years to treat various health conditions. Additionally, the plant has deep symbolic value in Chinese culture, being associated with beauty, femininity, wealth, and honor.
The scientific name Paeonia lactiflora was assigned by the German botanist Peter Simon Pallas in 1776, based on specimens collected in the Lake Baikal region of Siberia. The genus “Paeonia” derives from the ancient Greek παιωνία (paiônia), referring to Paeon, the physician of the gods in Greek mythology, who used the plant to heal wounds of the gods. The specific epithet “lactiflora” means “milky flowers” in Latin, an allusion to the species’ white flowers.
The Chinese Peony belongs to the group of herbaceous peonies, distinguishing itself from tree peonies (Paeonia suffruticosa) and intersectional Itoh hybrids. It is a perennial species that completely loses its aerial parts in winter, reemerging each spring from robust underground structures. Within the genus Paeonia, Paeonia lactiflora represents one of the most cultivated species and used in hybridizations, having originated a significant number of ornamental cultivars. It is considered fundamental in the genealogy of so-called garden peonies, for its vigor, genetic stability, climatic resistance, and floral beauty, characteristics that have made it the basis of peony horticulture.
The morphology of Paeonia lactiflora reveals adaptations to cold environments and seasonal vegetative growth. Its root system consists of thick, fleshy, tuberous roots arranged radially from a short underground stem called a rhizome. These roots function as storage organs, accumulating nutrients that enable vigorous growth during the growing season. The stems are erect, glabrous or slightly pubescent, herbaceous in consistency and smooth in texture. Emerging directly from the rhizome, they grow vertically to about 24 to 39 inches (60 to 100 cm) in height, and can reach up to 47 inches (120 cm) under ideal conditions. They exhibit a grayish-green to purplish-green coloration at the base, with progressive branching in the upper portion.
Secondary branches are short and typically do not branch extensively. Each main stem can support one to several terminal inflorescences. The leaves are alternate, compound, commonly tri-pinnate, featuring nine to twenty-seven ovate-lanceolate leaflets. Each leaflet measures from 1.6 to 5.9 inches (4 to 15 cm) in length and 0.8 to 2.8 inches (2 to 7 cm) in width, with an acute apex and entire or slightly lobed margins. The color of the leaves is medium to dark green on the adaxial surface, and lighter on the abaxial surface, possibly showing a slight purplish pigmentation on the veins, especially during spring growth. The leaf texture is smooth and slightly waxy, contributing to protection against water loss.
The Paeonia lactiflora, or Chinese Peony, is a monoecious plant, meaning it has hermaphroditic flowers with both male and female reproductive organs in the same flower. Its inflorescences are terminal and solitary, occasionally axillary, rarely in groups of two or three buds per stem. Blooming occurs from late spring to early summer, typically from May to June in the northern hemisphere. The flowers are large, showy, and extremely fragrant, with diameters ranging from 3.1 to 7.9 inches (8 to 20 cm), depending on the cultivar and environmental conditions. They exhibit radial symmetry (actinomorphic) and generally have five to ten green sepals, followed by five to ten or more true petals, especially in double cultivars.
The color of the petals varies widely from white, light pink, bright pink, carmine, red, and in some selections, shades close to lilac. Some varieties emit an intense fragrance reminiscent of roses or lilies, while others have a mild scent or are almost odorless. The gynoecium consists of two to five free carpels, tomentose ovaries, and curved stigmas, often red or pink in color. The androecium features numerous stamens with yellow anthers and short filaments.
Pollination is predominantly entomophilous, carried out by bees, flies, and other insects attracted by the nectar and the intense color of the flowers. The fruit is a follicle, dehiscent, which opens longitudinally upon maturation, exposing the rounded, black, and shiny seeds. In wild plants or less manipulated cultivars, fruits form relatively frequently. However, in many ornamental cultivars, seed production is scarce or nonexistent, due to selection for double flowers that sacrifice fertility. Seeds are dispersed by gravity (autochory) or, occasionally, by ants (myrmecochory), especially in natural ecosystems.
Like other peonies, the Chinese Peony also follows the classification of flowers according to the standards defined by the American Peony Society, which organizes the different types based on the appearance of the petals and floral organs. This helps to better understand what the flowers look like and why some appear fuller or simpler than others. There are six main types of Chinese Peony flowers, each with its own way of forming the flower.
- Single – This type of flower is the most similar to wild peonies. It has between five and fifteen petals, arranged like an open saucer. In the middle of the flower, the stamens (which produce pollen) and the carpels (female part) are easily visible. It is a light and open flower, very easy to recognize.
- Japanese – The flowers of this type have something special in the center: the stamens transform into structures called staminodes. They look like thin, colored petals, but do not release pollen. These flowers originated in Japan and were chosen precisely because they do not create a mess with pollen.
- Anemone – In this form, what was supposed to be a stamen turns into something even more petal-like. These organs, called petaloids, are usually yellow and are right in the middle of the flower. Sometimes they are narrow, sometimes larger, creating an interesting contrast with the outer petals.
- Bomb – These flowers look like a ball at the center of a dish. The middle part is made of petals that have grown so much that they resemble a small ball, usually the same color as the outer petals. They draw a lot of attention due to their rounded shape.
- Semi-double – This flower is a middle ground. It has more petals than the single form, but the stamens are still visible. Sometimes, the stamens begin to turn into petals, or the plant just produces more petals than usual. It looks full, but without completely hiding the center.
- Full Double – This is the fullest flower of all. Here, the stamens and carpels turn into petals, and the center of the flower disappears amid so many layers. When stamens still exist, they are so hidden that they can only be seen if one opens the flower by hand. It looks like there is a flower within another, with many layers.
It is inevitable to distinguish, when discussing the cultural history of the Chinese Peony, the boundaries between Paeonia lactiflora and other species of the same genus, such as Paeonia suffruticosa. Although each has distinct botanical characteristics — with lactiflora being a herbaceous perennial and suffruticosa a shrubby species — both share prominence in the aesthetic, symbolic, and medicinal imagination of Eastern culture, especially in China.
This occurs because, historically, the Chinese used the traditional names mǔdān (牡丹) and sháoyào (芍药) to refer to different types of peonies, without necessarily making a strict differentiation between botanical species as we do today in Western taxonomy. Thus, when we talk about the presence of the peony in art, literature, traditional medicine, and imperial symbolism, we are often referring to the collection of peonies cultivated in Chinese territory over the centuries — and not just to Paeonia lactiflora in the strict sense.
However, Paeonia lactiflora plays a central role in the domestication and selection of herbaceous peonies, both in China and later in Europe. It was with this species that European botanists began systematic crossbreeding to produce the so-called “garden peonies,” which now dominate ornamental cultivation in temperate regions. This same species was also one of the most utilized in traditional Chinese medicine, with roots known as bái sháoyào (白芍药), used for over a thousand years to treat imbalances in the liver, blood, and female uterus, according to the principles of classical herbal medicine. Thus, the symbolic, artistic, and medicinal richness attributed to Chinese Peonies in China involves a shared botanical heritage, where Paeonia lactiflora is both a protagonist and a supporting player alongside other species.
When introduced to Europe, particularly between the 18th and 19th centuries, Paeonia lactiflora began to be seen not only as an exotic and decorative plant but also as an artistic flower. Its cultivation quickly expanded in France, England, and Germany, where gardeners and hybridizers began to select varieties with more lush, double, and fragrant flowers. At that time, its visual aspect became an inspiration for visual artists who sought to capture nature in its most exuberant and sensory form. Claude Monet, one of the main names in French Impressionism, grew Chinese Peonies in his famous garden at Giverny and prominently featured them in his floral paintings. Other artists such as Édouard Manet, Vincent van Gogh, and Pierre-Auguste Renoir also explored the peony as a symbol of luxury and femininity.
The generous forms of the flower, with its soft layers and intense coloring, fit perfectly into the Impressionist aesthetic, which favored the representation of light, texture, and natural movement. In the decorative design of the late 19th century, especially in the Art Nouveau style, the Chinese Peony began to appear in wallpaper patterns, stained glass, embroidery, and ceramics, often stylized but always recognizable by its voluminous and ornamental profile. This transition between Eastern cultural collectivism and Western botanical individualization explains why Paeonia lactiflora, even as part of a larger symbolic set, has earned its own place in the heart of global horticulture and art.
Paeonia lactiflora has a wide variety of cultivars, many of which have been recognized with the Award of Garden Merit (AGM) by the Royal Horticultural Society (RHS). Below, some of the main cultivars of Paeonia lactiflora that have received the AGM are highlighted, each with distinct characteristics that make them valuable to collectors, landscapers, and ornamental gardening enthusiasts.
- ‘Sarah Bernhardt’: One of the most popular cultivars, it features double flowers in shades of soft pink, with delicately wavy petals and a distinctive fragrance. It is widely used in floral arrangements and is noted for its long-lasting bloom.
- ‘Festiva Maxima’: Known for its pure white double flowers, with occasional carmine spots at the center. It has a strong aroma and blooms in late spring, making it a classic choice for formal gardens.
- ‘Duchesse de Nemours’: This cultivar displays double white flowers with a slight greenish touch at the center. It is appreciated for its sweet fragrance and the elegance of its flowers, which resemble roses.
- ‘Monsieur Jules Elie’: Features large, double flowers in shades of silvery pink, with lighter central petals. It is valued for its lush appearance and pleasant fragrance.
- ‘Bowl of Beauty’: Stands out for its anemone flowers, with vibrant pink outer petals and a cream center. This color combination creates a striking visual contrast.
- ‘Coral Charm’: A semi-double cultivar with flowers in shades of coral that fade to a soft pink as they mature. It is known for its early blooming and the uniqueness of its coloring.
- ‘Felix Crousse’: Features double flowers in a deep cherry-pink shade, with densely clustered petals. It is a traditional choice for classic gardens.
- ‘Laura Dessert’: This cultivar offers double white flowers with finely cut petals, creating a delicate texture. It is appreciated for its elegance and subtle fragrance.
- ‘Whitleyi Major’: Has simple white flowers with prominent golden stamens, providing a clean and classic look. It is an ideal option for naturalistic-style gardens.
- ‘Miss America’: Features semi-double white flowers with a slight pink touch on the bud, opening to reveal golden stamens. It is known for its mild fragrance and abundant flowering.
These cultivars represent just a selection of the many varieties of Paeonia lactiflora available, each offering unique characteristics that can meet different aesthetic preferences and garden design needs. Selecting the appropriate cultivar can significantly enrich the landscape composition, providing spectacular blooming and visual interest throughout the season.
The Chinese Peony is one of the most versatile and sophisticated ornamental species available for landscaping and decorative floral use. Its grandeur, variety of floral forms, and chromatic richness make it a standout plant both in border compositions and mass planting, as well as in cut floral arrangements for indoor settings. The perennial nature and vigorous herbaceous texture of this species make it an intermediate structural plant in landscaping, serving as a transitional role between woody shrubs and smaller herbaceous plants.
In landscaping, the placement of Chinese Peonies should consider not only aesthetics but also ecological factors that favor their blooming. The species requires fertile soils, rich in organic matter, well-drained, and well-aerated. Excessive moisture around the tuberous roots can severely compromise the plant’s performance. Therefore, the ideal positioning of a Chinese Peony in landscape projects often involves modifying the soil, incorporating organic compost, and elevating the beds. Cultivating them in full sun locations, yet sheltered from strong winds, provides the best conditions for developing vigorous blooms.
From a structural standpoint, herbaceous peonies present a significant visual mass. They function as medium-sized plants in mixed beds, offering volume and texture. For this reason, they are frequently used in borders, in composition with background shrubs and smaller front-facing floriferous herbaceous plants. In large gardens, they are effective as a focal spring plant, especially when grouped in masses. The density and durability of the foliage allow the plant to maintain ornamental value even outside the blooming period, although it is important to select cultivars that do not exhibit early senescence, which would cause undesirable gaps in the garden.
In the construction of flower borders, the choice of Chinese Peony flower colors should consider the visual impact at different distances. White, cream, and light pink flowers are noticeable even at long visual ranges, while intense red flowers, although striking up close, tend to blend into the background at greater distances. Therefore, cultivars with dark colors should be positioned closer to the observer. This visual logic is particularly useful in gardens with curvilinear paths or front gardens, where spatial perception changes as the visitor moves.
Besides color, the shape of the flower influences its landscaping function. Simple, Japanese, and anemone types are more resistant to rain, as they accumulate less water on the petals. However, double and bomb types, although spectacular, are more prone to bending stems under the weight of waterlogged flowers, requiring staking or shelter. Plants with bomb-type flowers, however, offer an interesting visual transition by initially opening with the appearance of a simple flower and evolving into the exuberance of double types, maintaining aesthetic value for several days.
For those who appreciate the logic of composition in landscaping, the Chinese Peony can be used in projects that mix color sequence, flowering synchrony, and texture contrast. Cultivars with bluish or yellowish red undertones, as well as variations in pastel tones and delicate pigmented markings, offer broad possibilities for sophisticated compositions, especially when considering the timing of flower opening.
In floral art, the Chinese Peony is unmatched in elegance and aroma. Cut flowers of Chinese Peony are widely used in high-end floristry, being valued in formal arrangements, bridal bouquets, and interior compositions. It is ideal to harvest the buds while still closed, in the so-called “marshmallow stage” – when they are firm yet soft to the touch – as this ensures greater longevity in the arrangement.
In floral arrangements, the Chinese Peony harmoniously combines with other equally luxurious-looking flowers, such as roses and lisianthus, creating full, elegant, and striking compositions. For visual contrasts, it can be paired with more slender-shaped flowers, such as delphiniums or light floral stems, which balance its opulence.
Some gardeners may wish to dedicate an area of the garden exclusively for the cultivation of cut flowers, where Chinese Peonies are arranged in utility beds, similar to ornamental vegetable gardens. This arrangement allows for harvesting without compromising the composition of the main landscaping, in addition to facilitating care with support, irrigation, and sanitary control. Indoors, Paeonia lactiflora maintains its decorative value for up to ten days, provided it is kept in fresh water and away from direct sunlight.
Paeonia lactiflora is a plant of cold temperate climate, with a vegetative cycle directly dependent on exposure to low temperatures in winter. To bloom properly, the species requires a prolonged period of cold, with temperatures near or below 41°F (5°C) for several consecutive weeks. This thermal requirement, called vernalization, is essential for the formation of floral buds and for the resumption of growth in spring. In regions with warm subtropical or tropical climates, where winters are not sufficiently cold, the plant tends to decline after a few years, with a gradual loss of flowering capacity, even though it maintains its vegetative size.
The ideal brightness is full sunlight for most of the day. Paeonia lactiflora should receive at least eight hours of direct sunlight daily to ensure good development and flower production. In partially shaded locations, the plant can survive and maintain its foliage, but will produce few or no flowers, especially if the shading occurs during the hours of greatest solar intensity. For warmer climate regions, cultivars of single, semi-double, or Japanese-type flowers are more suitable, as they open more easily and are less affected by high temperatures during blooming.
The garden soil should be fertile, deep, with good physical structure, and high organic matter content. Drainage must be excellent, as the Chinese Peony is extremely sensitive to excess moisture in its tuberous roots. The presence of clay or compacted soil requires amendments with coarse sand and organic compost to increase porosity. In regions with abundant rainfall or naturally moist soil, it is recommended to plant in raised beds or well-draining plots. In pots, a light yet nutritious substrate should be used, with good moisture retention without waterlogging. An effective mix includes topsoil, well-rotted compost, and perlite or coarse sand in balanced proportions.
Planting of Paeonia lactiflora should be done in the fall, when the plant is dormant. The roots should be positioned so that the buds (eyes) are between 1.2 and 2 inches (3 and 5 cm) below the soil surface—deeper than this, and the plant may have difficulty flowering. The ideal spacing between plants is at least 24 inches (60 cm), allowing for ventilation and reducing moisture accumulation among the foliage, which decreases the risk of fungal diseases.
The Paeonia lactiflora is a long-lived plant, capable of staying healthy and productive for more than fifty years in the same location, provided that proper conditions are maintained. Watering should be moderate, keeping the soil slightly moist, but never waterlogged. The most critical periods for irrigation are the end of summer and fall—when the roots grow and strengthen—and spring, during the formation and expansion of the flowers. In dry climate regions, regular watering should be maintained until the leaves fall at the end of the season.
Fertilization should be balanced. At the beginning of spring, a formulation rich in nitrogen and phosphorus is applied to stimulate vegetative growth and floral development. After blooming, a fertilizer with a higher potassium content is recommended, promoting root strengthening for the next cycle. Excessive nitrogen fertilization can lead to excessive growth of the aerial part, making the stems weak and more prone to lodging.
As the Chinese Peony is a herbaceous plant with large flowers, staking is an important practice, especially in cultivars with double flowers or bomb-type blooms. Ring-shaped supports or circular structures should be installed early in the growth stage so that the stems develop within the structure. This prevents the plant from collapsing under the weight of the flowers, particularly on rainy days.
Pruning of the leaves should be done at the end of autumn, after the natural senescence of the aerial parts. All above-ground portions should be cut close to the surface, and plant debris removed from the area to prevent the spread of fungal diseases. This annual pruning is essential to maintain the health of the plant and to stimulate vigorous sprouting in the following spring.
Maintenance of the Chinese Peony includes removing wilted flowers (deadheading) throughout the blooming period, which redirects the plant’s energy towards strengthening the roots, rather than seed formation. Divisions of clumps are rarely needed but can be performed every 10 to 15 years, preferably in the fall, using clean and sharp tools. Immediate replanting after division should follow the same recommendations as the original planting.
The Chinese Peony exhibits high resistance to intense frosts and prolonged winters. It is a plant perfectly adapted to low temperatures, capable of withstanding severe freezing during its dormancy phase without damage to subsequent growth or flowering. This cold resistance is due to its nature: all the aerial parts die naturally at the end of autumn, while the tuberous roots remain protected under the soil, accumulating reserves for the next sprouting. The species not only tolerates but relies on a period of cold to complete its reproductive cycle, requiring vernalization for floral induction.
However, the Chinese Peony shows sensitivity to prolonged drought, especially during the periods of sprouting, flowering, and rooting (early spring and late summer to autumn).
Although their roots store water, water stress can impair the opening of flowers, resulting in buds that do not bloom or in blooms that are inferior in size and duration. Therefore, even though it is resistant to mild drought, it is crucial that the soil remains slightly moist during these critical phases. Regarding wind exposure, the plant tolerates moderate winds, provided it is properly staked. Cultivars with large flowers and thinner stems are particularly susceptible to breaking under intense wind or after heavy rains, which can compromise the ornamental effect.
The tolerance to exposure to salty breezes and saline soils is limited. Although some cultivars may adapt to protected coastal gardens, direct exposure to salty winds can cause leaf necrosis and interfere with the overall health of the plant. Chinese Peonies are generally ignored by deer and rabbits. However, young shoots may be consumed in periods of food scarcity, and physical protection is advisable in areas with the presence of these animals.
The species is considered resistant to most pests and diseases. The main disease associated with the cultivation of Chinese Peony is peony wilt (Botrytis paeoniae), a fungus that attacks young tissues under conditions of high humidity and low ventilation. Symptoms include dark spots on shoots and flowers, sudden wilting, and rotting of the flowers. Control involves preventive practices such as adequate spacing, good drainage, removal of plant debris in the fall, and application of specific fungicides in critical areas. Other less frequent diseases include mildew, rusts, and root rots caused by soil fungi, which can be avoided by choosing well-drained locations and using resistant cultivars and vigorous seedlings.
Insects such as thrips, aphids, and beetles may occasionally attack the flowers, feeding on the nectar or piercing petals. Although they rarely cause serious damage, they can compromise the aesthetic aspect of commercial flowers. In gardens, control is usually unnecessary, but in commercial cultivation, one can resort to spraying with natural extracts or low-impact products.
The propagation of Paeonia lactiflora can be carried out in two main ways: by division of clumps and by seeds.
Division is the most commonly used and most efficient method to maintain the genetic characteristics of the mother plant. It should be done during the dormant period, in the fall, using clean tools and precise cuts. Each division should contain at least three to five eyes (growth buds) and healthy portions of tuberous root, which should be firm like carrots. After planting, the new seedlings may take two to three years to reach full bloom, although some may produce isolated flowers as early as the second year.
Seed propagation is possible but less common, mainly used by nurserymen and breeders. The seeds of Paeonia lactiflora exhibit double dormancy—morphological and physiological—and require cold stratification for two consecutive periods, which can take up to two years to germinate. After germination, the resulting plants may take four to seven years to flower for the first time, and they exhibit genetic variability, meaning they will not necessarily be identical to the mother plant. Therefore, vegetative multiplication remains the preferred method to maintain stable cultivars with proven ornamental value.
