The European Plum Tree (Prunus domestica) is a deciduous tree widely cultivated in various temperate regions of the world for its significant economic and nutritional relevance. This species holds a prominent place in commercial fruit cultivation, being grown both for fresh consumption (in natura) and for processing into compotes, jams, juices, and dried fruits (dried plums), generating important income for small and medium-sized rural producers. Additionally, the tree is valued in landscaping for its ornamental flowering and fruiting and for attracting pollinators.
The European Plum tree originated in Western Asia, specifically in the Caucasus region, between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, from where it spread to Europe in antiquity. It is believed that the species Prunus domestica emerged from a natural cross between the cherry plum (Prunus cerasifera) and the sloe (Prunus spinosa), occurring approximately 2,000 years ago, and this hybridization resulted in a hexaploid species.
However, recent research, such as a study published by Rehder in 1990, is casting doubt on this theory. These studies suggest that Prunus spinosa may not have been involved in the origin of the European Plum tree. Instead, it seems likely that different forms of the Prunus cerasifera, with different numbers of chromosomes (2X, 4X, and 6X), might have given rise to Prunus domestica on their own. As this plant is very genetically flexible and similar to the modern European Plum tree, this new explanation makes quite a bit of sense.
The cultivation of the European Plum was later disseminated by the Romans to other parts of Europe, reaching the Americas through European colonizers in the 16th century. Currently, the European Plum tree is cultivated in various regions with temperate to subtropical climates, requiring a defined period of cold for dormancy break and proper flowering. In Brazil, plum varieties are most successfully cultivated in the South and Southeast regions, where climatic conditions provide the necessary chill hours for their full development.
The scientific name Prunus domestica originates from the binomial taxonomy established by Carl Linnaeus in the 18th century. The genus name “Prunus” derives from Latin and was the Roman term for the plum tree, having even older roots in Greek “προύμνη” (proúmnē), used by classical authors such as Virgil and Pliny the Elder to designate the fruit of the plum. The specific epithet “domestica” also has a Latin origin, meaning “domestic” or “cultivated”, clearly indicating that it refers to a species developed through human cultivation and selection, contrasting with wild plum trees.
The European Plum is a deciduous tree (which loses its leaves in winter) belonging to the Rosaceae family, with a woody texture and moderate growth reaching between 13 to 26 feet (4 to 8 meters) in height, with a longevity of over twenty years under proper management. The root system is pivoting, deep, and well-developed, with extensive and adaptable secondary roots to different soil textures, favoring the efficient absorption of water and nutrients. The main stem is erect, with bark initially smooth and greenish in young individuals, gradually turning gray, rough, and fissured longitudinally with age.
The main branches form at a wide angle of insertion, giving the canopy a rounded or oval architecture, depending on the management and cultivar. The young branches are glabrous or finely pubescent, reddish-brown in color, becoming progressively lignified. They display prominent nodes and short internodes, from which the fruit-bearing and vegetative branches originate. The leaves are simple, alternate, petiolated, with deciduous stipules. They are elliptical to ovate in shape, serrated margin and acute apex. They measure between 2 to 4 inches (5 to 10 cm) in length and 1 to 2 inches (2.5 to 5 cm) in width, with the upper side glabrous and dark green, and the underside lighter, possibly presenting sparse trichomes in specific cultivars. The petiole is generally short, measuring 0.4 to 0.8 inches (1 to 2 cm), and may display nectariferous glands at the base of the blade, which have an ecological function in attracting beneficial insects.
The inflorescence of Prunus domestica is fasciculate, emerging in groups of two to three flowers directly from axillary buds or on short brachyblasts on branches from the previous year. It is a monoecious species with hermaphroditic, complete, and actinomorphic flowers, generally with five white petals, occasionally slightly tinged with pink, measuring between 0.6 to 0.8 inches (1.5 to 2 cm) in diameter. The sepals are persistent and separate, while the stamens range from 20 to 30 per flower, encircling a single pistil with a superior, unilocular ovary, and terminal style. Flowering occurs at the end of winter or the beginning of spring, before the leaves emerge.
Pollination is predominantly entomophilous, with a significant participation of bees from the genus Apis. Many European Plum cultivars are self-incompatible, requiring the presence of compatible pollinating cultivars in the orchard, with overlapping flowering periods to ensure fruit set. The fruit is an ellipsoid or globular drupe, with a thin, smooth epicarp covered by bluish or purplish waxy bloom. The plums measure between 1.2 to 3.1 inches (3 to 8 cm) in length and can weigh from 1.1 to 2.8 ounces (30 to 80 g) per unit in commercial cultivars. Its mesocarp (flesh) is fleshy, juicy, and sweet, varying in color from yellow to dark purple depending on the cultivar and degree of ripeness. The endocarp is woody, rigid, and indehiscent, containing a single light brown seed. The fruit ripens between summer and early autumn.
The European Plum features a rich variety of natural subspecies and cultivars selected over centuries. This multiplicity lends extraordinary versatility to the cultivation of the European Plum, adapting to different climatic conditions and serving various purposes. The taxonomy of Prunus domestica recognizes several subspecies, each with distinct morphological characteristics and origins:
- Prunus domestica subsp. domestica: The typical subspecies, encompasses most of the large-fruited European plums, used both for fresh consumption and processing.
- Prunus domestica subsp. insititia: Known as bullace or damson plum, features smaller and more acidic fruits, often used in the production of jams and spirits.
- Prunus domestica subsp. italica: Includes varieties known as “Reine Claude” or “Queen Claudia,” characterized by green or golden fruits, sweet in taste and firm in texture.
- Prunus domestica subsp. syriaca: Encompasses mirabelles, small yellow plums originating from the Lorraine region in France, valued for fresh consumption and in compotes.
- Prunus domestica subsp. intermedia: Represents intermediate forms between the subspecies, displaying varied morphological and organoleptic characteristics.
- Prunus domestica subsp. prisca: Known as zibarte, it has small and sour fruits, traditionally used in the production of spirits.
In addition to different subspecies, the European Plum has undergone intense genetic enhancement, with the development of numerous cultivars, suitable for various climatic, soil, and cultivation conditions. Various cultivars of Prunus domestica, also known as European Plum, are extensively cultivated around the world targeting adaptations for bigger, sweeter, more or less juicy fruits with extended shelf life, among other traits:
- ‘Stanley’: Native to the United States, this self-compatible cultivar produces dark blue, sweet, and firm fruits, frequently used in dried plum production.
- ‘D’Agen’: A traditional French cultivar, known for its sweet and juicy fruits, ideal for drying and producing high-quality dried plums.
- ‘President’: A British cultivar of large, dark blue fruits with firm flesh and a sweet flavor, suitable for fresh consumption and processing.
- ‘Opal’: Developed in Sweden, features medium-sized fruits with purple skin and yellow, sweet, and aromatic flesh, perfect for fresh consumption.
- ‘Victoria’: Popular in the United Kingdom, it has oval fruits with red skin and yellow, sweet and juicy flesh, widely consumed fresh.
- ‘Reine Claude Verte’: A French variety with small, green, and sweet fruits, enjoyed fresh and in preserves.
- ‘Mirabelle de Nancy’: Originating from France, it produces small yellow fruits that are sweet and aromatic, used in sweets and spirits.
- ‘Blue Tit’: A British cultivar with blue, sweet, and juicy fruits, suitable for fresh consumption and making jams.
- ‘Czar’: An English variety boasting medium-sized purple fruits with firm flesh and a balanced taste, used both for fresh consumption and processing.
- ‘Laxton’s Delight’: Developed in the United Kingdom, it offers medium-sized fruits with red skin and yellow, sweet, and aromatic flesh.
- ‘Oullins Gage’: A French variety with large, yellow fruits having juicy and sweet flesh, ideal for fresh consumption.
- ‘Marjory’s Seedling’: A British cultivar with large, purple fruits, firm and sweet flesh, suitable for both fresh consumption and drying.
The European Plum (Prunus domestica) should not be confused with Prunus salicina, originally from China but extensively developed in Japan, which is why it is referred to as the Japanese Plum. The Japanese Plum adapts better to subtropical and high-altitude tropical climates, as it requires fewer chill hours (around 250 to 500 hours). Its fruits are larger, more rounded, with a smoother skin and coloring ranging from yellow to intense red. The flesh is juicier, with a soft texture and a distinctly sweet or sweet-sour taste. Due to its delicacy, it is more suited to fresh consumption and less for industrialization.
Historically, the Prunus domestica has been cultivated for millennia and its use is documented since antiquity. There are records of European Plum in civilizations of Mesopotamia and Egypt, later spread throughout Europe by the Roman Empire. During the Middle Ages, monasteries and medicinal gardens preserved and multiplied the known varieties, with the species later introduced to the Americas by European colonizers. The European Plum became part of not only the diet but also cultural and festive traditions, as seen in the producing regions of Germany, where harvest festivals and the craft production of cakes like zwetschgenkuchen are common.
European Plum was one of the first fruits to be commercially dehydrated, resulting in a product of high durability and energy density in agricultural trade. Its culinary uses are extensive and span various cultures. The fresh fruit is widely consumed fresh, and also used in the production of juices, compotes, preserves, sweets, pies, chutneys, and jellies.
In regions such as the United States and France, the drying of the plum tree (particularly the ‘D’Agen’ cultivar) leads to the production of dried plums or “prunes”, used in confectionery, baking, savory dishes, and in the production of liqueurs and spirits. In Brazil, dried plums are very prominent in Christmas cuisine, stuffing poultry and making up traditional desserts. The alcoholic fermentation of the fruit is also used for the production of spirits, such as the slivovitz of the Balkans and the eau-de-vie de mirabelle in France.
The process of dehydrating and producing dried plum begins with the harvest of ripe fruits, followed by brief exposure to steam or boiling water to break the cuticle, facilitating the evaporation of water, and then by drying itself, which can occur in the sun (traditional method) or in mechanical dehydrators with controlled temperature and humidity (industrial method). Dehydration reduces the water content from approximately 80% to 15-25%, concentrating sugars and nutrients, enhancing the flavor, and allowing for prolonged preservation of plums without refrigeration.
The nutritional value of the European Plum makes it a functional food. High in dietary fibers, particularly pectin and cellulose, it helps regulate bowel movement. It is an important source of B-complex vitamins (like B1, B2, and B6), vitamin C, and vitamin K, as well as minerals such as potassium, iron, calcium, and magnesium. The phenolic compounds, including anthocyanins, flavonoids, and phenolic acids, provide antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and cardioprotective properties. Dried European Plums concentrate these nutrients and feature a relatively low glycemic index, recommended as an energizing snack and as an adjunct in diets focused on digestive health.
The medicinal properties of the European Plum are recognized in different herbal medicine traditions, using both the fresh and dried fruit. Traditionally, they are associated with improvement in bowel movements, control of blood pressure, reduction in cholesterol absorption, and relief from chronic constipation.
The European Plum transcends its role as a fruit-bearing species to stand out as an exceptional landscaping element, providing two moments of significant visual impact throughout the year. In early spring, its exuberant blossom covers the still leafless branches with delicate white or pink flowers, creating a spectacle similar to the traditional Japanese ‘hanami‘, while in summer and early fall, its colorful fruits, ranging from golden yellow to deep purple, offer a second ornamental moment of notable beauty and extended duration. Furthermore, the autumnal changes, with leaves changing color, and the leaf fall in winter, offer interesting seasonal shifts, adding interest to the garden.
Versatile in its training forms, the European Plum adapts to various styles and landscaping needs: it can be kept as a freeform tree in spacious gardens, trained against walls in espalier in smaller spaces, shaped in open containers to ease harvesting, worked as a multi-trunk shrub to create interesting volumes, or even cultivated as bonsai for small areas. This flexibility allows for its harmonious integration into different aesthetic concepts, from gardens inspired by Oriental and Mediterranean styles to French ‘potagers‘ and minimalist contemporary gardens.
Besides its ornamental attributes, the European Plum tree offers significant ecological advantages for landscaping, attracting pollinators during its flowering period and providing birds with its fruits, contributing substantially to biodiversity. Its adaptability to different climatic conditions, ability to create microclimates through moderate shading, and role in stabilizing soils on sloped terrains make it a valuable multifunctional element, perfectly exemplifying how utility and beauty can coexist harmoniously in green spaces, as demonstrated by the famous Villandry gardens in France and the contemporary productive gardens of renowned designers like Piet Oudolf.
Originating from temperate regions, the European Plum adapts better to climates with well-defined seasons, being sensitive to excessive moisture and constant tropical temperatures. In commercial or home cultivations, the observance of climate and soil factors is critical for the success of the plant.
The European Plum’s light requirement is high, needing direct sunlight for at least 6 to 8 hours daily. In shaded conditions, there is a reduction in flowering, irregular fruiting, elongation of internodes, and increased susceptibility to fungal diseases. For this reason, it is recommended to be cultivated in open spaces, away from walls, large trees, or buildings that may block sunlight.
The ideal climate for cultivating the European Plum is temperate, with cold winters and mild summers. This species has a variable chilling requirement depending on the cultivar, generally between 500 and 1000 hours with temperatures below 44.6°F (7.2°C) for adequate floral induction. Varieties adapted to southern Brazil or the Serra da Mantiqueira, for example, require at least 400 hours of cold. At altitudes above 2624 feet (800 meters), even in subtropical regions, these requirements can be met, especially in mountainous microclimates.
Regarding temperature, the European Plum tolerates moderate frosts during dormancy, but flowers and young shoots are highly sensitive to late frosts and temperatures below 28.4°F (-2°C) after sprouting. On the other hand, high temperatures and prolonged dry periods, common in tropical regions, compromise fruiting and the quality of the fruits. The temperature range during the reproductive cycle is beneficial, favoring the accumulation of sugars and pigments in the fruits.
The ideal soil for European Plum cultivation is well-drained, deep, medium-textured (loamy to sandy-loam) and rich in organic matter. The plant is sensitive to waterlogging, therefore clay or compacted soils need to be amended with drainage or structural management. The ideal pH is between 6.0 and 6.8. Excessively acidic soils should be corrected with liming, while overly alkaline soils can induce deficiencies in micronutrients such as iron and zinc.
Planting should ideally be done during the plant’s dormant period, at the end of winter or beginning of spring, in a planting hole measuring about 20 x 20 x 20 inches (50 x 50 x 50 cm), enriched with well-rotted organic matter, natural phosphate, and limestone, according to soil analysis. Spacing varies depending on the size of the cultivar and the training system, ranging from about 13 to 20 feet (4 to 6 meters) between plants.
Irrigation is crucial, especially in the first two years of establishment, during dry periods and in the fruiting phase, avoiding both water stress and waterlogging. Frequency depends on local conditions, which might be weekly during moist periods and every 2-3 days during droughts, always paying attention to soil moisture in the root zone.
Fertilization should be balanced and based on soil and leaf analysis. Generally, organic fertilizations are applied in the planting hole and subsequently, chemical fertilizations are top-dressed with nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, in divided doses throughout the cycle. Micronutrients such as boron, zinc, and iron must be monitored, especially in amended or sandy soils.
Staking is recommended for young plants, using bamboo stakes or treated wood, to ensure the vertical growth of the main stem, preventing breakages due to wind or uneven canopy formation. The canopy management can follow models like the central leader, open vase, or espalier, depending on the cultivation system, garden style, and available space.
Pruning is a fundamental practice. Formative pruning is done in the early years to structure the canopy; fruiting pruning removes old, poorly located, or excessively vigorous branches, and cleaning pruning eliminates dry, diseased, or crossing branches. Pruning should be carried out during the dormant period, using clean and sharp tools.
The maintenance of orchards or gardens with European Plum includes preventive plant health control, mowing around the plant, mulching to preserve moisture, and annual top dressing. It is also important to monitor fruit set and perform manual thinning on cultivars with excessive load, ensuring quality and uniform size of the remaining fruits.
European Plum can also be grown in pots for confined or paved spaces, such as terraces or patios, provided that a container with at least 16 gallons (60 liters) of capacity is used, equipped with good drainage. The potting mix should be light, fertile, and well-aerated, composed of garden soil, cured organic matter, and coarse sand or perlite, with a pH between 6.0 and 6.8. The use of grafted and already producing saplings is recommended to ensure controlled growth and fruit production.
In pots, watering should be regular, avoiding both drying out and waterlogging. Fertilization can be done with liquid fertilizers or controlled-release ones, tailored to the plant’s growth. It is recommended to replace part of the potting mix every two or three years to maintain fertility and good root development. Cleaning and containment pruning should be carried out annually to preserve the shape and vigor of the plant in potted cultivation.
Regarding strong winds, the canopy tends to be vulnerable to branch breakage, especially when there is an overload of fruits or improper pruning. The use of natural or artificial windbreaks in exposed regions is recommended. Maritime exposure, when associated with well-drained soils and adequate sunlight, is not a limiting factor, although air and soil salinity may negatively impact development in poorly managed coastal orchards.
European Plum is sensitive to various pests and diseases, especially in humid climate regions or under inadequate management. Among the main diseases are brown rot (Monilinia spp.), which causes rotting of fruits and flowers, rust (Tranzschelia pruni-spinosae), which affects leaves and reduces productivity, and bacterial canker (Pseudomonas syringae), responsible for the regressive death of branches and buds. Powdery mildew (Podosphaera tridactyla) and leaf spot (Cladosporium carpophilum) are also common, particularly in dense and poorly ventilated cultivations.
The preventive use of Bordeaux mixture is particularly important at the end of winter, during the plant dormancy, and in the initial budding phase, when tissues are more susceptible to infection. This application reduces the fungi present on the plant and in the soil, protecting buds and young shoots. In organic orchards, Bordeaux mixture is one of the few authorized alternatives, which should be applied with attention to concentration (usually between 0.5% to 1%) and under suitable weather conditions, avoiding periods of high sunlight or imminent rain.
Regarding pests, noteworthy are aphids (Myzus persicae), which weaken shoots and transmit viruses, the fruit fly (Anastrepha and Ceratitis spp.), which damages ripe fruits, and the trunk borer (Zeuzera pyrina), which bores into trunks and causes internal necrosis. Control should be based on monitoring, integrated pest management, sanitary pruning, and judicious application of fungicides and insecticides, prioritizing biological, organic, and selective methods.
Propagation of European plum is primarily by grafting. The rootstock is chosen based on soil type, desired vigor, and resistance to soil diseases such as Armillaria spp. Grafting can be done by cleft grafting or budding, usually on one-year-old seedlings. Propagation by seeds is reserved for production of rootstocks or for genetic improvement, requiring cold stratification for 90 to 120 days to break dormancy.
The average time until first fruiting is 3 to 5 years for grafted plants, and 6 to 10 years for those obtained from seed. The productive longevity of Prunus domestica ranges from 15 to 25 years, possibly exceeding 30 years in well-managed orchards and under ideal climatic conditions, with stable productivity after the fourth or fifth year. In home gardening, production can be maintained for longer, provided the tree is pruned regularly and kept healthy.
